The pathogenic mechanisms leading to ineffective erythropoiesis are complex and still not fully understood.

Management of the anemia caused by ineffective erythropoiesis is difficult.

GDF11 traps show promising pharmacologic activity in models of both ineffective erythropoiesis and iron-restricted anemia.

Patients with CA fail to make adult hemoglobin, exhibit ineffective erythropoiesis, experience severe anemia, and are transfusion dependent for life.